The San Francisco outbreak of 1900-1904 is a bubonic epidemic epidemic centered in Chinatown San Francisco. It was the first epidemic outbreak in the continent of the United States. The epidemic was recognized by medical authorities in March 1900, but its existence was denied for more than two years by Henry Gage, Governor of California. The denial is based on business reasons: the desire to keep San Francisco and California's reputation clean and to prevent loss of income from trading halted by quarantine. Failure to act quickly may have allowed the disease to establish itself among the local animal population. The federal authorities are working to build a case to prove that there is a major medical health problem, and they isolate the affected area. Evidence that an epidemic is happening to undermine Gage's credibility, and he loses the post of governor in the 1902 election. The new governor, George Pardee, secretly implements the medical and epidemic solutions terminated in 1904. There were 121 cases identified, including 119 deaths.
After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, many San Francisco cities were destroyed by fire, including all the Chinatown districts. The rebuilding process started immediately but it took several years. While the reconstruction went smoothly, the second outbreak hit San Francisco in May and August 1907 but was not concentrated in Chinatown. In contrast, cases occur randomly throughout the city, including cases identified at bay in Oakland. The politicians and the San Francisco press reacted very differently this time, wanting the matter to be resolved quickly. Health authorities work quickly to assess and eradicate disease. To control one of the disease vectors, about $ 2 million was spent between 1907 and 1911 to kill as many rats in town as possible.
At the end of the second outbreak, in June 1908, 160 cases were identified, including 78 deaths, a much lower mortality rate than 1900-1904. This time, everyone who is infected is Caucasian. Soon, California ground squirrels were identified as vectors of other diseases. The initial rejection and inhibitory response to infection of 1900 may have allowed pathogens to acquire the first foundation in North America, from which it spread sporadically to other countries in the form of a sylvatic epidemic. However, there is a possibility of a squirrel population infection occurring in 1900.
Video San Francisco plague of 1900-1904
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The third pandemic of the outbreak began in 1855 in China and eventually killed some 15 million people, mainly in India. In 1894, the plague struck Hong Kong, the main trade port between China and the US. US officials fear that others will get infected from cargo carried by a ship that will cross the Pacific Ocean. For this reason, all ships are strictly inspected. However, at the time, it was not widely known that mice could carry outbreaks, and that ticks in these mice could transmit the disease to humans. The ship arrives at a clean US port after passenger inspection shows no signs of illness. Health workers do not test on mice or lice. Despite important advances in the 1890s in the fight against plague, many doctors in the world did not immediately change their ineffective and outdated methods.
In November 1898, the head of the US Marine Services surgeon (MHS), James M. Gassaway, felt it was his duty to deny the rumors of the plague in San Francisco. Supported by city health officials, Gassaway that some Chinese residents have died of pneumonia or lung edema, and it is not a plague.
In the newly formed US region of Hawaii, the city of Honolulu became a victim of the outbreak in December 1899. Honolulu residents reported cases of fever and swollen lymph nodes that form bubos, with severe internal organ damage - rapidly causing death. Not knowing exactly how to control the spread of the disease, city health officials decided to burn the infected house. For four months, thousands of residents were evacuated and quarantined.
On January 20, 1900, the wind changed to fanned the fire out of control, and almost the entire Chinatown burned - 38 hectares (15 hectares) - leaving 6,000 homeless.
Widespread maritime operations in the port of San Francisco caused concerns to medical people such as Joseph J. Kinyoun, the main MHS quarantine officer in San Francisco, about infections that spread to California. A Japanese ship, SS Nippon Maru , arriving in San Francisco Bay in June 1899 had two deaths outbreak at sea, and two cases of illegal passengers found dead in the bay, with postmortem culture proving they had an outbreak. In New York in November 1899, the British ship JW. Taylor brings three cases of outbreaks from Brazil, but his case is limited to ships. Japanese freight ship S.S. Nanyo Maru arrived in Port Townsend, Washington, on 30 January 1900, with 3 deaths from 17 confirmed outbreak cases. All these ships are quarantined; they are not known to have infected the general population. However, it is possible that the plague escaped from unknown vessels through fleas or mice, then infecting US residents.
In this dreadful mood, in January 1900, Kinyoun ordered all ships to come to San Francisco from China, Japan, Australia, and Hawaii to raise yellow flags to warn of possible outbreaks on ships. Many employers and shipping workers feel that this is bad for business, and unfair for ships that are free from outbreaks. City promoters are confident that the plague can not survive, and they are not happy with what they see as an abuse of authority performed by Kinyoun. On February 4, 1900, a Sunday magazine supplement from the San Francisco Examiner brought an article entitled "Why San Francisco Is Plague-Proof". Some American experts hold the false belief that a rice-based diet makes Asian people have less resistance to outbreaks, and that the meat diet keeps Caucasians free from this disease.
Maps San Francisco plague of 1900-1904
Infection
In January 1900, the four-masted steamers S.S. Australia putting anchor in Port of San Francisco. The ship sailed between Honolulu and San Francisco on a regular basis, and the passengers and crew were cleared. Cargo from Honolulu, dismantled on the dock near the fall of the Chinatown sewer, allowing rats to bring out plague to leave the ship and send the infection. However, it is difficult to trace an infection to one blood vessel. Where it came from, the disease soon formed in a narrow Chinese neighborhood. A sudden increase in dead rats in the Chinese-American community may be the result of rats on board vessels climbing the gutters and infecting local mice.
Rumors about the presence of plague abound in the city, quickly received notice from the authority of MHS stationed on Angel Island in San Francisco Bay, including Chief Kinyoun.
A Chinese-American named Chick Gin, Wing Chung Ging or Wong Chut King became victims of the first official outbreak in California. The 41-year-old man, born in China (resident of San Francisco for 16 years) is a bachelor living in the basement of the Globe Hotel, in Chinatown, at a crossroads, now called, Grant and Jackson. The Globe Hotel was built in 1857, with an Italian palazzo view. However, in the mid-1870s it was a slum tenement packed with Chinese citizens. Right outside, Jackson Street is a red light district of China, where unmarried men can visit "one hundred-wife-men".
On February 7th, 1900, King Wong Chut, the owner of a wooden yard, fell ill with what Chinese doctors thought was typhus or gonorrhea, the latter being a sexually transmitted disease common to the people of Chinatown at the time. After a failed treatment and no help for his illness, he died in his bed after suffering for four weeks. In the morning, the corpse was brought to a Chinese company where it was examined by San Francisco police surgeon Frank P. Wilson on March 6, 1900. Wilson summoned AP O'Brien, a city health department official, after finding suspiciously. swollen lymph nodes. Wilson and O'Brien then summoned Wilfred H. Kellogg, a San Francisco bacteriologist, and the three men performed an autopsy at night. Looking through his microscope, Kellogg thought he saw a bacilli outbreak.
Late at night, Kellogg runs a sample of suspicious lymph fluid to Angel Island to be tested on animals in Kinyoun's well-equipped laboratory - an operation that will take at least four days. Meanwhile, Wilson and O'Brien asked the City Health Council and urged Chinatown to be quarantined. When dawn came on March 7, 1900, Chinatown was encircled by ropes and surrounded by police who prevented the way out or access to anyone but whites. The 12-block area is limited by four roads: Broadway, Kearney, California and Stockton. About 25,000-35,000 residents can not go. Chinese Consul General Ho Yow feels that the quarantine may be based on false assumptions and that is completely unfair to the Chinese people and will seek orders to lift the quarantine. The Mayor of San Francisco, James D. Phelan supports keeping Chinese-speaking residents separate from Anglo-Americans - claiming that the Chinese-Americans are unclean, dirty, and "a constant threat to public health." However, the Health Council raised the quarantine on March 9 after it was enacted for just 2½ days. O'Brien said, by way of explanation, that "the general demands have become too great to be ignored". Animals tested in the Kinyoun laboratory appear to be in normal condition after the first 48 hours of exposure to the causative agent of the outbreak. The lack of initial responses raises doubts on the theory that the outbreak was the cause of King Wong Chut's death.
On March 11, Kinyoun's laboratory presented the results. Two guinea pigs and one mouse died after being exposed to samples from the first victim, proving the outbreak was indeed in Chinatown. Without restoring the quarantine, the Board of Health checks every building in Chinatown, and works hard to disinfect the environment. Property taken and burned if suspected of storing dirt. Using physical violence, police impose compliance with the Board of Health directives. An angry and worried Chinese community reacts by hiding the sick.
On March 13th, another lab animal, a monkey, died, was exposed to plaque. All dead animals were tested positive for bacterial outbreaks. US General Surgeon Walter Wyman told San Francisco doctors at the end of March 1900 that his laboratory confirmed the fact that lice could carry the plague and send it to a new host.
Reaction
Aligned with the powerful railways and business interests of the city, California Governor Henry Gage has publicly denied an epidemic outbreak in San Francisco, fearing that every word of the presence of this plague would severely damage the city and state economy. Supporting newspapers, such as the Call , the Chronicle and Bulletins , voiced Gage's rejection, initiating what became an intense libel campaign against Kinyoun's quarantine officers. In response to the country's refusal, Wyman recommended to federal Finance Minister Lyman J. Gage that he intervened. Secretary Gage agrees, creates a commission of three investigators who are respected medical experts, experienced in identifying and treating outbreaks in China or India. The Commission examined six San Francisco cases and definitely determined that the plague was present.
Like Kinyoun, the findings of the Financial commission were immediately condemned by Gage Governor. Gage believes the growing federal government's presence in this regard is a dirty nuisance of what it sees as a state concern. In retaliation, Gage rejected a federal commission using the University of California's laboratory at Berkeley to learn more about the outbreak, threatening to fund the university state. The Bulletin also attacked the federal commission, labeling it a "young trio and inexperienced."
Clashes between Gage and federal authorities are intensifying. Wyman instructed Kinyoun to put Chinatown under the second quarantine, as well as block all East Asians from entering the state border. Wyman also instructed Kinyoun to inject everyone from Asian heritage in Chinatown, using an experimental vaccine developed by Waldemar Haffkine, known to have severe side effects. A spokesman in Chinatown protested loudly; they do not give permission for this kind of bulk experiment. The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, also known as the Six Companies, filed a lawsuit in the name of Wong Wai, a merchant who took a stand against what he regarded as a violation of his personal freedom. Not quite a class action suit, arguments include the same words as a complaint that all Chinatown residents are denied "equal protection under the law", part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the US constitution. Federal Judge William W. Morrow ruled uncharacteristically supportive of the Chinese, especially since defense by the State of California was unable to prove that Chinese Americans were more vulnerable to plague than Anglo Americans. The decision sets a precedent for greater limits placed on public health authorities that seek to isolate the diseased population.
Between 1901 and 1902, the plague continued to worsen. In a 1901 speech to both houses of the California State Legislature, Gage accused the federal government, especially Kinyoun, injecting bacterial plague into the corpse, falsifying evidence. Responding to what he said was a massive unrest by the MHS, Gage pushed the censorship laws to silence media reports about an outbreak infection. The bill failed in the Legislature of the State of California, but the law to silence a report among the medical community was successfully passed and signed into law by the governor. In addition, $ 100,000 is allocated to a public campaign led by Gage to deny the existence of the outbreak. However, personally, Gage sent a special commission to Washington, DC, comprising the South Pacific, newspapers and shipping lawyers to negotiate a settlement with MHS, under which the federal government would remove Kinyoun from San Francisco with the promise that the state would secretly work same. with MHS in combating epidemic outbreaks.
Although the secret agreement allows the removal of Kinyoun, Gage returns on its promise to help the federal government and continue to hinder their efforts to learn and quarantine. A report issued by the State Health Council on September 16, 1901, endorsed the Gage claim, denying plague outbreaks.
Chinese Racism - Chinatown, early 1900s
The widespread racism against Chinese immigrants was socially acceptable in the early days of the Chinatown epidemic in the early 1900s. Standard rights and social rights are often rejected by Chinese people, because of the view in the way American landowners will refuse to maintain their own property when renting for Chinese immigrants. History of Chinese Americans. Living conditions in the Chinatown community reflect social norms and racial inequalities during that time for Chinese immigrants. Housing for the majority of Chinese Chinatown immigrants is unsuitable and inadequate for human life, but with rare housing options and American landlords unwilling to provide a fair and equal housing, Chinese immigrants have no choice but to live with such housing differences. Discrimination against Chinese Americans culminated in two acts, Quarantine of the Chinatown of San Francisco, and a permanent extension of the Chinese Exception Act of 1882. Quarantine expansion in Chinatown is more motivated by the Chinese-American racist image as a disease carrier than by actual evidence. the presence of the Bubonic plague
In housing discrimination during this time health officials are also looking to find people who hide their loved ones who catch the plague and want to take action on their own. As a result of the government trying to hide that there is an outbreak that is happening it hurts the economy. This in turn stops the countries from the desire to trade products and goods that will help America, especially in the Bay Area, California.
Court Involvement during the Outbreak
The Chinese wanted the court system to show mercy to them. They need to show them that they are being discriminated against. Many people are affected by quarantine because they work outside of San Francisco. Because of this limited number of Chinese agree to take inoculation. On May 22, 1900 the press released information that people are experiencing severe pain from the vaccine. On May 24, 1900 with the help of Six Chinese Companies They hired Reddy, Campbell, and Metson law firms. The defendants included Joseph J. Kinyoun, all members of the San Francisco Board of Health. They bring a lawsuit because they are being separated and forced to take an experimental vaccine that causes more harm to the Chinese community. The Chinese want the court to issue "temporary orders" to enforce their freedoms under the constitution. They should be able to travel outside of San Francisco. Chinese and Japanese residents are not allowed to travel outside of San Francisco without a health certificate. Judge William W. Morrow ruled that the defendants violated their Fourteenth Amendment. Morrow revealed that they should apply the same restrictions to everyone, regardless of their ethnic group. The defendants did not have sufficient evidence to prove that the Chinese were spreading the plague. Morrow agrees with their claim that if they are why they are allowed to roam the streets of San Francisco.
1900
After the death of King Wong Chut, the San Francisco Health Council took immediate action to prevent the spread of the epidemic: Chinatown is quarantined. Health officials, to prevent the spread of the disease, made the decision to put Chinatown under quarantine, without notice to residents - targeting only Chinese citizens. White Americans walking the streets of Chinatown were allowed to leave; everyone is forced to stay. Doctors are prohibited from crossing into Chinatown to identify and help the sick. The Health Council must approve whether health workers cross into the quarantine area or not. Due to a lack of evidence that the cause of King's death was an outbreak, the quarantine was removed a day later to avoid controversy.
Kinyoun's laboratory confirmed that the disease was a plague and immediately told the Board of Health. In an effort to avoid a second controversial quarantine, the Board of Health continues to conduct house-to-house inspections to look for possible plague-affected homes - disinfecting those suspected of being at risk of infection. Participants in house-to-house examinations are mostly doctors and volunteers. In contrast, other residents did not support the inspection and that the disinfecting plan was not done in good faith. Believing the second quarantine will soon be implemented, worried citizens start to flee quietly and hide in friends' homes outside Chinatown.
As the days passed, more bodies were reported and autopsies revealed a bacillary outbreak, suggesting that outbreaks had struck the San Francisco Chinatown, but the health council was still trying to reject it. Health agencies are trying to keep all information about secret outbreaks by applying strict rules on what doctors can write as official death certificates. Nevertheless, newspapers publish news about the existence of a plague outbreak in San Francisco across the nation.
Official inspection and disinfectant Chinatown finally began, thanks to the monetary contributions of supervisors from volunteer doctors, police, and inspectors who participated in the actual disinfection campaign. Chinatown cleanliness begins to show results as casualties fall slowly throughout March and early April. By the end of April, the body of Law An, a Chinese laborer from a village near the Sacramento River, was found in an alley in Chinatown. The cause of death of the Law of An is determined to be a plague. After that, several other Chinese citizens who died suddenly determined to be filled with bacilli plague. The fear that the plague is spreading is increasing.
Controversy from a vaccination program organized by Kinyoun with the help of Surgeon General Wyman spiked. The plan is to inoculate the Chinese with the Haffkine vaccine, a prophylactic anti-prophylactic vaccine, intended to provide protection against outbreaks over a 6-month period, no one talking about side effects and that the vaccine is still not approved for humans. Most Chinese residents refused and asked for the vaccine to be tested in mice first. Initially, representatives of the Chinese community had agreed that injecting the population with the serum could be a reasonable and safe solution, but as soon as it was agreed with the rest of the Chinese population it was therefore unethical to try the vaccine in the first human. Representatives from Six Chinese companies demanded the vaccination program to be removed as an option. With much pressure and pressure from the Chinese community, the vaccination program was detained, but at that time hundreds of Chinese, Japanese, other residents had received the vaccine and presented a terrible side effect of the injection.
1901
Joseph J. Kinyoun felt the public pressure to clean up his reputation. He summoned the help of US Surgeon General Walter Wyman to bring someone from outside to investigate the Kinyouns procedure. In December 1900 Wyman selected Assistant General Surgeon Joseph H. White to manage investigations around all Pacific Coast stations. White wants to focus on how food is handled when imported from China and Japan. Kinyoun tried to block this progress because he did not want to publicly admit that there was an outbreak. White made his appearance in January 1901. White and Kinyoun approved the autopsy of Chun Way Lung who is said to be suffering from gonorrhea. Wilfred Kellogg and Henry Ryfkogel carried out an autopsy and achieved the respect of White by revealing that Lung had died of a plague. White concluded that Kinyoun's bacteriological confirmation is no longer reliable.
The governor of Gage refused to support the verified diagnoses by competent Pasteur people in San Francisco. Kinyoun began to express his irritation and suggested that independent external experts ensure that the plague was present. White agrees and provides this information to the general surgeon. Kinyoun wants his reputation restored and that his findings are valid so he can continue to investigate cases of the plague. On January 26, Flexner, Novy, and Barker arrived in San Francisco. The three scientists were appointed official commissions to prove whether the plague exists.
Gage reacted by telegram to President William McKinley urging federal experts to work with state health authorities. Gage requests are not given because the federal government wants the commission to be allowed to work independently. They will deliver all their findings to the treasury department and then forwarded to the Gage. Flexner, Novy, and Barker scheduled the examination of the sick and died on February 6. Federal investigators share duties. Novy performs a bacteriological test, while Barker is accompanied by a Chinese translator visiting a sick person. On February 12, the team has studied six cases that all identify the characteristics of bubonic plaque. This is confirmed by pathological and bacteriological data. Flexner, Novy, and Barker completed their investigation on February 16. They met with Governor Gage on the same day and told him of their conclusions.
Gage is upset and accuses them of being a threat to public health. Over the next few weeks, Gage questioned the diagnosis and blocked the publication of the final report. He blamed the commission for being biased and influenced by Kinyoun. Eventually two senators for California suggested that Gage should engage in friendly cooperation with federal authorities. Gage sent representatives to Washington to reach an agreement for federal authorities to suppress their findings about the outbreak in San Francisco. The federal authorities approved of these demands after the Gage representative verbally promised to manage sanitation campaigns in Chinatown. This will be done in secret under the guidance of an expert from the Marine Hospital Service. This deal is designed to avoid damaging the country's reputation and economy. Wyman's general surgeon takes most of the blame. He is accused of violating US law and violating international treaties that require him to inform all countries that there is a contagious disease. Wyman and President McKinley destroy the credibility of American public health in the eyes of the nation and abroad.
1902
Against continuing refusals by San Francisco-based newspapers, reports from the Sacramento Bee and Associated Press describing the outbreak, publicly announcing outbreaks across the United States. The governments of Colorado, Texas and Louisiana state impose California quarantine - arguing that because states refuse to recognize health crises within their borders, countries that accept rail cargo or shipping from the port of California have an obligation to protect themselves. The threat of national quarantine grows.
As the 1902 election draws near, South Pacific council members and the "Railway Republican" faction increasingly see the Gage as embarrassing to the Republicans. Gage's public denial of epidemic outbreaks is to protect the country's economy and business interests from its political allies. However, reports from certain federal agencies and newspapers continue to prove Gage's error. At the Republican state convention that year, Railroad Republican faction refused Gage's nomination as governor. In his place, former Oakland Mayor George Pardee, a German-trained medical doctor, received a nomination. Pardee's nomination was largely a compromise between the Railroad Republican factions.
In his final speech, in the State Legislature of California, in early January 1903, Gage continued to deny the plague. He blamed the federal government, in particular, Kinyoun, MHS, and the San Francisco Board of Health for damaging the country's economy.
See also
- List of epidemics
References
- Notes
- Daftar Pustaka
Tautan eksternal
- 1902 Scene di Chinatown, Early Motion Pictures, Library of Congress
- Boikot Cina tahun 1905
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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